The days of tactical vehicles being manufactured solely for the military are declining. Commercial off-the-shelf have been favoured by many nations, but do they really fit the brief?
Light tactical vehicles are a staple of any military and, because of their relative simplicity to build, they are widely manufactured in the Asia-Pacific region. However, when procuring tactical-vehicle fleets, militaries must predict what future conflicts they may engage in and what new threats are liable to arise.
Experience in Iraq and Afghanistan, particularly of Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) forced those armies engaged to acquire heavier protected vehicles, and these types have now become commonplace in most Asia-Pacific inventories too. Those long-running counter-insurgency conflicts demonstrated how vulnerable soft-skin vehicles were against threats such as rocket-propelled grenades and IEDs. While it is possible to up-armour run-of-the-mill military vehicles, they can never compare with the protection offered by dedicated mine-resistant, ambush-protected (MRAP) vehicles. However, MRAPs are probably ten times the price of regular tactical vehicles, and this causes budgetary pressures as militaries scramble to improve vehicle inventory protection levels.
One regional example of a lightly protected vehicle is Thales Australia’s Hawkei. A spokesperson explained: “The Hawkei is an advanced capability that offers class-leading protective mobility. It can be integrated with a wide portfolio of mission systems and improves protection for soldiers, particularly with regards to blast and ballistic threats, and enables them to operate in high-risk environments.”
Australia ordered 1,100 Hawkeis in 2015. Despite issues with their Wabco anti-lock braking systems, Major General Andrew Bottrell, Head Land Systems, told an Estimates hearing last October: “There is a robust interim solution that is being fielded now, which allows the vehicles that have been issued to army to operate with no restriction. That interim solution will remain in place until Thales has implemented a permanent solution…by mid-2025.”
The Hawkei has not achieved exports yet but, alongside Mowag’s Eagle V, it is being tested by Japan as a replacement for the Light Armoured Vehicle (LAV) once produced by Komatsu. Recent imagery showed a Hawkei in a Japanese camouflage scheme and with a Mitsubishi badge undergoing evaluations. When asked about export opportunities, Thales Australia said it could not comment “due to contractual and commercial in-confidence arrangements”.
Komatsu is an interesting case. After producing around 2,000 LAVs for the Japanese military, Komatsu elected to close its military business in 2019 because it felt that the sector was insufficiently lucrative. This forced Japan, which prides itself on domestic industrial capabilities, to find an LAV replacement from overseas. Nonetheless, Japan continues to use hundreds of militarised Mitsubishi Pajeros and Toyota High-Mobility Vehicles for its unprotected tactical-vehicle fleet.
India’s mantra is local production too, and Mahindra answered the call when it received a $146.8 million contract for 1,300 Armoured Light Specialist Vehicles (ALSV) in March 2021. The automaker also expects follow-up orders. SP Shukla, Mahindra Defence’s chairman, said, “It is the first major contract for advanced armoured tactical vehicles that are designed and developed by the private sector in India with intellectual property rights within the country. This contract paves the way for large-scale adoption of Indian platforms with indigenous capabilities.”
The ALSV’s ballistic protection is STANAG Level 1, which increases to Level 2 with applique armour. The ALSV also serves as the basis for the Indian Army’s Vehicle-Mounted Infantry Mortar System (VMIMS). Equipped with Milanion NTGS 81mm Alakran mortars, all VMIMS should be delivered by year’s end.
COTS
Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) vehicles – types basically available from local dealerships – are certainly a valid solution for militaries, as they may be just 20-25 percent of the price of military-specification vehicles. Shaun Connors, an independent analyst on military vehicles, asked, “Does a military tactical vehicle offer 4-5 times the mobility capability? No! Does a military-spec vehicle provide 4-5 times the lifespan? Probably not. So, on paper, the case looks good for a COTS vehicle.”
Commercial vehicles do have their place; they are ideal for homeland security, for instance, and a commercial runabout is better than a tactical vehicle in terms of cost and comfort for garrison tasks. Some Asian militaries have followed this route, with Malaysia ordering Weststar GS Cargo utility vehicles and the GK-M1 to replace Land Rover Defenders. Weststar Defence Industries offers military vehicles based on Isuzu, Maxus or Toyota chassis.
Similarly, Thai manufacturer Preechataworn Industry makes 4×4 vehicles for the Kingdom’s military. The first order was placed around 2009, and these Type 50 vehicles were initially based on Mitsubishi, Isuzu and Toyota chassis. In the event, only the Toyota Hilux proved sturdy enough and production consolidated on this chassis. At the Defense & Security 2023 exhibition in Bangkok, Singapore’s ST Engineering showed its Ground Deployed Advanced Mortar System lightweight 120mm mortar system mounted on the rear of such a vehicle, illustrating how even commercial-based vehicles can accommodate a range of crew-served weapons.
Connors remarked: “Any country can take a vehicle like a Toyota Hilux or Ford Ranger, pull bits off the body and throw them in the bin, and fabricate something to put on top and call it theirs. But I’d ask you the question, why would you waste your time doing that? I know what the answer is – it gives you a local product for local industry. The whole process costs plenty of money to keep people in a job for a little while.” He therefore wondered why, logically, militaries do not just buy twice as many COTS vehicles straight from the manufacturer for the same price.
Delving deeper, there are other issues with COTS fleets that reduce economies. They are unlikely to last longer than five years in military service, so this necessitates regular fleet replacement exercises. Commercial vehicles are difficult to up-armour, and nearly all modern 4x4s employ complex electronics that present undesirable maintenance problems.
Connors added: “I’m not a great believer in supporting local industry. If local industry is any good, it will survive. You can’t just go throwing money towards something to have it made in your country so you can put a badge on it when, at the end of the day, it’s going to cost you 2-3 times as much for something that’s not quite as good as the product you started with.”
Indonesia also exemplifies this Asian quest to indigenise production of military equipment. State-owned PT Pindad handed over seven Komodo light protected and ten Maung 4×4 light tactical vehicles to the military on 28 February. Indonesia requires 5,000 Maungs and PT Pindad’s production target is 1,500 vehicles annually. The Maung’s Toyota Hilux-based chassis and powertrain are all imported, but PT Pindad hopes to localise engine and chassis production. The company also hopes to release an electric Maung in 2024, and to raise indigenous content from the current rate of 65 percent to 80-90 percent.
Whilst on the topic of alternative forms of propulsion, Connors posed this question: “What actual chances do you stand in a combat situation with electric vehicles? It remains Star Trek, until you can find a way to fill up your electric car with electricity as quickly as you can fill it up with diesel, and you can transport your electricity about the same as diesel.” He said electric vehicles “are not as useful as its supporters try to convince you”. The benefits of silent running or a reduced thermal signature are obviously negated if the vehicle sits immobile because it cannot be recharged. “You need to stick to a practical, functional, modern diesel engine,” the British expert emphasised.
Nonetheless, Asian vehicle requirements can be large in scope. For example, the Indian Army issued a request for proposals (RfP) on 29 February for 1,054 4×4 hardtop light vehicles to be purchased from a domestic carmaker. The vehicles will weigh no more than 2.5 tonnes, have a 1,500-2,000 pound (700-900 kilogram) payload capacity, and will transport soldiers in both conventional and counterinsurgency scenarios.
For many years, the Indian military has relied upon some 35,000 locally produced, petrol-powered Maruti Gypsy (a licensed Suzuki Jimny) vehicles. Civilian Maruti production ceased in 2019, and military versions shortly thereafter, which has forced India to switch to alternatives. India has also inducted commercially available Tata Safari Storme and Mahindra Scorpio Classic SUVs.
Elsewhere in Asia-Pacific, New Zealand is pursuing two separate tenders for replacement vehicles. An RfP seeking unarmoured Utility Vehicles – Medium (UV-M) and Utility Vehicles – Light (UV-L) was issued in November 2022. The Ministry of Defence could not update Asian Military Review on the status because the tender process is ongoing, but tender documents reveal New Zealand is seeking 230 UV-Ms and UV-Ls to replace 321 Pinzgauer 6×6 vehicles acquired in 2004.
The UV-L has a gross vehicle weight of less than six tonnes (6,000kg), while the UV-M sits in the 7-10-tonne (7,000-10,000kg) class. The RfP stated, “Ideally, the UV-L and UV-M will be based on a single family of vehicles providing commonality of training, parts and support.” An off-the-shelf platform, either military or commercial, is desired.
The following UV-L variants are sought: approximately 20 two-door general service vehicles with a rear weatherproof cover; plus 90 four-door command/liaison versions. As for the UV-M, the requirement is for: 48 two-door general service vehicles possessing a removable troop carrier module; 24 command/command post vehicles of either two- or four-door configuration; around 20 C2 forward information support team vehicles; 16 four-door maintenance support vehicles; and a dozen two-door ambulances able to accommodate two stretchers. New Zealand specified delivery in 2024-25, but this seems unlikely given that selection has not occurred yet.
New Zealand’s other project is looking for Light Multi-Purpose Vehicles (LMPV) and Medium Multi-Purpose Vehicles (MMPV) of primarily COTS specification. Last October, an RfI was issued for the van-/pickup-sized LMPV family that consists of seven variants: troop transport minibus (in 4×4 off-road and standard road configurations); logistics deck/canvas cover (single-cab 4×4 off-road, single-cab standard road, crew cab 4×4 off-road and crew cab standard road types); and a logistics van in a single-cab road variant. The MMPV is of truck size, so is not relevant to this article. Incidentally, the MoD welcomes low-emission vehicles such as electric ones, though they must have a minimum range of 180-250 miles (300-400km).
Military-specification vehicles
There are times when the added capability of a military-off-the-shelf (MOTS) platform is paramount. Connors noted that militaries have themselves contributed to a capability gap, where they have procured runabout commercial vehicles and heavier protected vehicles but have neglected tactical vehicles in the middle of this spectrum. Indeed, there are fewer such MOTS tactical vehicles available on the market today. “Part of the reason,” Connors explained, “is that the gap between what a military wants and needs is becoming far wider than what the commercial environment requires.”
For example, Land Rover no longer offers a military-spec Defender, and today’s Defender would be ill suited to tactical use. Meanwhile, Mercedes-Benz took a decision to split its G-Class into separate commercial and military streams. Australia procured 2,268 G-Wagons in 11 variants, these being assembled in Austria but having customised modules fitted locally. Australia also purchased a specially developed G-Wagon 6×6 chassis.
Of course, there are questions over what military-spec even means. Connors noted, “Broadly speaking, there is no designed-for-purpose tactical vehicle nowadays. They all have a commercial foundation, and the degree to which the commercial product is retained is the definition of a military-spec vehicle. Now, right at the top, the closest you’ll get to a purpose-designed military vehicle is where the body and chassis frame are designed for purpose, but they do still use stock automotive parts for the most part.”
Arguably, the American High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV or Humvee) stands out as being the preeminent military-specification vehicle of the modern era. However, the HMMWV did not prove particularly popular in the Asia-Pacific region, with only Nepal (for peacekeeping), the Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand operating this iconic 4×4.
South Korea also has a healthy automotive industry, and it is self-sufficient in terms of military vehicles. Regarding the Kia Light Tactical Vehicle (KLTV), a Kia Motors spokesperson told Asian Military Review: “The KLTV has proven its quality and performance by being operated in many countries with various terrains and climates. It shows that the KTLV provides enough mobility and versatility for worldwide customers.”
Kia also pointed out that the KLTV, available in un-armoured and armoured versions, comes with the option of an onboard power generator “so that it can be equipped with tactical devices without sacrificing payload capacity”. Since 2015, Kia has produced eight variants: command; personnel carrier; protected reconnaissance; missile carrier; nuclear, biological and chemical reconnaissance; multipurpose; shelter cargo; and shop van vehicles.
Kia Motors exhibited an EV9 electric vehicle at Seoul ADEX 2023 last October, essentially a civilian model, but the company stated its “focus for military applications lies in hydrogen-powered vehicles. Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) can operate quietly, making them ideal for covert operations and minimising the risk of detection. Compared to battery electric vehicles, FCEVs can be refuelled more quickly. Kia has secured a government research and development project from the South Korean armed forces, and they are currently developing military FCEVs together.”
Kia confirmed the KLTV has been sold to European, South American, Middle Eastern and African nations. “There is potential for [further] KLTV exports, especially in nations currently utilising well-established designs for lightweight, multipurpose military vehicles. The KLTV was developed with a similar foundation, but it has superior performance and faster availability. With its cutting-edge technology and robust support infrastructure, the KLTV can be a powerful alternative to these ageing fleets.”
Kia Motors continues to produce the legacy KM450 4×4 vehicle, originally based on the Kaiser Jeep. The spokesperson said, “Valued for its compatibility, reliability and affordability, the KM450 has been purchased by Asia-Pacific and African nations.” Indeed, the Philippine Armed Forces is a major KM450 user.
China utilises the BJ2022 Yongshi 4×4 vehicle produced by the Beijing Automobile Works, but the People’s Liberation Army’s (PLA) dominant light tactical vehicle is the Mengshi from Dongfeng. The first-generation EQ2050, adopted by the PLA in 2006, mimicked the HMMWV and it even reportedly uses a license-produced Cummins turbodiesel engine. Apart from thousands issued to the PLA, export customers include Bangladesh, Belarus, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, the Central African Republic, Gabon, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Mali, Myanmar, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Trinidad & Tobago, Venezuela and Zimbabwe.
This original Mengshi was followed by Dongfeng’s light protected family of 4×4 and 6×6 vehicles based on the CSK131 personnel carrier that possesses a kerb weight of 3.7 tonnes. A plethora of variants include command post, armoured reconnaissance, antitank missile carrier, 122mm howitzer, 120mm mortar carrier, 122mm multiple rocket launcher, assault bridge-layer, UAV launcher, electronic warfare and ambulance versions. Standard and long wheelbases are available.
Conclusion
It is logical that militaries have a mix of types in their tactical-vehicle fleets to cover the requirements of both peacetime and the full spectrum of combat operations. However, this causes headaches for procurers and maintainers, since very few vehicle families offer commonality between commercial, military-specification and protected types.
Connors also lamented the obsession, particularly in Europe, with legislation, compliance and the green agenda, since this can impinge upon vehicle performance on the battlefield. Safety aids on modern vehicles are often of little benefit in combat settings, plus commercial vehicles are designed for Euro 6 emission standards, yet low-grade/high-sulphur or JP-8 fuels might be all that are available in combat. Indeed, environmental policies may slowly be pushing militaries in directions they would not necessarily prefer in terms of eco-friendly commercial products.
by Gordon Arthur
